Littoral & Swamp Forests

Wetland: 

Definition (Ramsar)

1. Areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, 
2. whether natural or artificial, 
3. permanent or temporary, 
4. with water that is static or flowing, 
5. Fresh, Brackish or salt water, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed 6m.

Types of Wetlands: 

• Coastal Wetlands: found in the areas between land and open sea that are not influenced by rivers such as shorelines, beaches, mangroves and coral reefs. For example, Coral Lagoons
• Shallow lakes and ponds: Areas of permanent or semi-permanent water with little flow. They include vernal ponds, spring pools, salt lakes and volcanic crater lakes.
• Marshes, swamps and Bogs: These are periodically saturated, flooded, or ponded with water. They can be tidal and non-tidal.
  • Marshes: characterized by herbaceous (non-woody) vegetation adapted to wet soil conditions
  • Swamps: These are fed primarily by surface water inputs and are dominated by trees and shrubs.
  • Bogs: waterlogged peatlands in old lake basins or depressions in the landscape. Almost all water in bogs comes from rainfall.
• Estuaries: The area where rivers meet the sea and water changes from fresh to salt can offer an extremely rich mix of biodiversity. These wetlands include deltas, tidal mudflats and salt marshes.

Corals

Wetlands in India

India has a rich variety of wetlands, covering a total area of wet land is 3.9 million hectares. The country’s wetlands have been grouped into eight categories:

1. Reservoirs of the Deccan Plateau in the south together with the lagoons and other wetlands of the southern west coast;
2. Vast saline expanses of Rajasthan, Gujarat and the Gulf of Kachchh;
3. Freshwater lakes and reservoirs from Gujarat eastwards through Rajasthan (Keoladeo National Park – formerly Bharatpur Wildlife Sanctuary – also have mammals: Chital & few Sambar) and Madhya Pradesh;
4. The delta wetlands and lagoons of India’s east coast (For example, Chilika Lake); 
5. the freshwater marshes of the Gangetic Plain;
6. the floodplains of the Brahmaputra; the marshes and swamps in the hills of northeast India and the Himalayan foothills; 
7. the lakes and rivers of the montane region of Kashmir and Ladakh;
8. The mangrove forest and other wetlands of the island arcs of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Mangroves grow along the coasts in the salt marshes, tidal creeks, mud flats and estuaries 

They consist of a number of salt-tolerant species of plants. Crisscrossed by creeks of stagnant water and tidal flows, these forests give shelter to a wide variety of birds.

Mangrove forests spread over 6,740 sq. = 7% of the world’s mangrove forests. They are highly developed in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Sundarbans of West Bengal. Other areas of significance are the Mahanadi, the Godavari and the Krishna deltas.

Importance of Wetlands

• Highly Productive: nearly two-thirds of its fish harvest and 40% of the world’s species live and breed in wetlands.
• Critical for food web: The combination of shallow water, high levels of nutrients is ideal for phytoplankton which sustain species of fish, amphibians, shellfish and insects.
• Carbon sequestration. For example, East Kolkata Wetlands.
• Raise groundwater level with increased seepage and Prevents droughts.
• Prevention of flood by storing excess runoff.
• Bio-remedification: Wetlands act as natural water filters. For example, East Kolkata wetlands treat the sewerage of the city naturally.
• Resource-rich: Wetlands are a vital source for food, raw materials, genetic resources for medicines, and hydropower.
• Economic importance: 
  • They play an important role in transport & tourism; 
  • Provide nurseries for fish.
• Cultural Importance: Important for cultural and spiritual well-being of people; Various tribes reside in these areas.
• Habitat: They provide habitat for animals and plants and many contain a wide diversity of life.
• Water supply: Urban wetlands are essential for preserving public water supplies.

Threats to Wetlands

• Urban Encroachment: diversion of land for residential, industrial and commercial facilities. 
• Agriculture: conversion to paddy fields. 
• Water Management projects: Construction of a large number of reservoirs, canals and dams to provide for irrigation significantly altered the hydrology of the associated wetlands.
• Logging: for timber
• Pollution: 
  • fertilizers and pesticides from agricultural runoff, 
  • Mercury from industrial sources and other types of pollution.
• Climate Change: Increased air temperature; 
  • shifts in precipitation; 
  • increased frequency of storms, droughts, and floods; 
  • increased atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration & acidification; and 
  • sea level rise could also affect wetlands.
• Dredging: The removal of material from a wetland or river bed. Dredging of streams lowers the surrounding water table and dries up adjacent wetlands.
• Draining: for water-supply or transports etc. This lowers the water table and dries out the wetland.
• Invasive Species: Indian wetlands are threatened by exotic introduced plant species such as water hyacinth and salvinia. They clog waterways and compete with native vegetation.
• Salinization: Over withdrawal of groundwater has led to salinisation.

Conservation Efforts

Wetlands International is a global organisation that works to sustain and restore wetlands and their resources for people and biodiversity. It is an independent, not-for-profit, global organisation, supported by government and NGO membership from around the world.

Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance: 

Under UN; “Convention on Wetlands” Signed in Ramsar (Iran) in 1971; for the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands. Today 25 sites in India of International Importance.

Mission: “the conservation and wise use of all wetlands through local and national actions and international cooperation, as a contribution towards achieving sustainable development throughout the world”.

Three pillars of the Convention are:

1. Work towards the wise use of all their wetlands.
2. Designate suitable wetlands for the list of Wetlands of International Importance (the “Ramsar List”) and ensure their effective management.
3. Cooperate internationally on transboundary wetlands, shared wetland systems and shared species.

It has 6 International Organisation Partners:  

1. Birdlife International, 
2. IUCN, 
3. WWF, 
4. Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust (WWT).
5. International Water Management Institute, 
6. Wetlands International, 

India became a contracting party to the Ramsar Convention in October 1981 and designated Chilika Lake (Odisha) and Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan) as its first two Ramsar Sites.

Later additions

1. 1990: Sambhar Lake (Rajasthan), Loktak Lake (Manipur), Harike Lake (Punjab), Wular Lake (Jammu & Kashmir). 
2. Andhra:
   1. Pulicat: Andra, marine protected area.
   2. Kolleru Lake (Andhra): Freshwater lake; lack a definite boundary & irregular shoreline.
3. Deepor Beel (Assam).
4. HP: Chandertal Wetland, Pong Dam Lake (Beas), Renuka Wetland (Smallest of India)
5. Jammu & Kashmir: Hokera Wetland, Surinsar-Mansar Lakes, Tsomoriri, Wular Lake.
6. Kerala: Ashtamudi Wetland, Sasthamkotta Lake, Vembanad-Kol Wetland (Largest Wetland of India)
7. Bhoj Wetland (MP)
8. Manipur: Loktak Lake (Montreux Record)
9. Odisha: Bhitarkanika Mangroves, Chilika Lake
10. Punjab: Harike Lake, Kanjli, Ropar;
11. Rajasthan: Keoladeo National Park (Montreux Record), Sambhar Lake
12. Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary (TN)
13. Rudrasagar Lake (Tripura)
14. Upper Ganga River (Brijghat to Narora Stretch)- UP
15. East Calcutta Wetlands (Bioremediation of Sewage of Kolkata)
16. Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary (Latest wetland added – Gujarat)

27th: Sunderbans (2019)

Its home to many rare species, records ZSI: According to zoological survey of India, Sunderban is home to 428 species of birds, 96 Royal Bengal Tigers and 12 species of kingfishers.

1. Some rare species such as:  Goliath heron and Spoon-billed Sandpiper.
2. The mangroves of Sundarbans provide sustainable livelihoods to millions of people and functions as a protective barrier for its inhabitants from natural calamities. The degrading health of mangroves affects their resilience and recovery potential against climate change consequence.
3. Sunderbans are a Ramsar site as well as a Biosphere Reserve recognized by UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere program.

2020: 10 more wetlands added

• Nandur Madhameshwar Weir – Maharashtra’s first; at the confluence of Godavari and Kadwa: It is a mosaic of lakes, marshes and riparian forest on the Deccan Plateau. It provides sanctuary to critically endangered species including Deolali minnow fish, Indian vulture and white-rumped vulture.
• From UP:
  • Saman Bird Sanctuary (Mainpuri): a seasonal oxbow lake. The Sanctuary is particularly important as a wintering site for many migrants including the greylag goose, with over 1% of the South Asian population present during winter.
  • Nawabganj Bird Sanctuary (Unnao): shallow marshland fed by Monsoon rains while the Sarda Canal supplies additional water. It is known to host Siberian cranes among migratory bird species that rest here during the winter months.
  • Samaspur Bird Sanctuary (Raebareli): a perennial lowland marsh typical of the Indo-Gangetic Plains. Its six connected lakes are heavily dependent on monsoon rains. It harbours threatened species such as the endangered Egyptian vulture and Pallas’s fish eagle and more than 1% of the South Asian population of the vulnerable common pochard. A tall grass called “Sarpat” is also found in bunches at every spot.
  • Sandi Bird Sanctuary (Hardoi): a freshwater marsh, known as Dahar Jheel (ancient name – river Garra (mentioned in Vedas as river Garun) passes through it). Designated as Important Bird Area by Birdlife International but is quickly dying. It is home to over 1% of the South Asian populations of common teal, red-crested pochard and ferruginous duck while vulnerable sarus crane has a population of 200 individuals within the Sanctuary. 
  • Parvati Arga Bird Sanctuary: It consists of two rain-fed oxbow lakes in the terai region. It is a refuge for some of India’s threatened vulture species: the critically endangered white-rumped vulture, Indian vulture and the endangered Egyptian vulture. 
  • Sarsai Nawar Jheel (Etawah, UP): a rain-fed lake. 
    • It is recognized by Birdlife International as an Important Bird Area.
    • It is an example of co-habitation of humans and wildlife: farming practices across most of the Site play important roles in sustaining the waterbird habitats.
    • Its home to vulnerable Saras Crane (with a population of 400 individuals making up the largest flock in the region), critically endangered white-rumped vulture and endangered woolly-necked stork.
• Punjab: 
  • Beas Conservation Reserve: It is a 185km stretch of Beas River, which is dotted with islands, sand bars and braided channels creating a complex environment supporting substantial biodiversity.
    • The Reserve hosts the only known population in India of the endangered Indus river dolphin. Further threatened species include the endangered masheer and hog deer as well as the vulnerable smooth-coated otter.
    • A programme was initiated to re-introduce the critically endangered gharial.
  • Nangal Wildlife Sanctuary: Located in Shiwalik foothills. 
    • It occupies Gobind Sagar Reservoir created by Bhakra-Nangal Dam on Sutlej in 1961.
    • Historic importance: Indian and Chinese PMs formalized the “Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence” there in 1954.
  • Keshopur-Miani Community Reserve: It is a mosaic of natural marshes, aquaculture ponds and agricultural wetlands maintained by the annual rainfall runoff.
    • It is heavily human influenced and includes a series of managed fishponds and cultivated crops such as lotus and chestnut.
    • A community-managed wetland, which provides food for people and supports local biodiversity. Threatened species present include the vulnerable common pochard and the endangered spotted pond turtle.
• 1. 2020:
     • Asan Conservation reserve: Dehradun
     • Kabartal: Begusarai, Bihar
     • Lonar Lake: Maharashtra
     • Tso Kar: Ladakh
     • Sur Sarovar, Mathura.
• Total 49 Now: 
  1. Haiderpur wetland, UP. 
     • This human-made wetland was formed in 1984 by the construction of the Madhya Ganga Barrage on a floodplain of the River Ganga and is a part of Hastinapur Wildlife Sanctuary. 
     • Fauna and Flora: 15 globally threatened species, such as the critically endangered gharial and the endangered hog deer, black-bellied tern, steppe eagle, Indian skimmer and gold mahseer, vulnerable swamp deer, near-threatened Indian grassbird. 
  2. Wadhvana Wetland, Gujarat. 
     • Created in 1910 by the former Baroda State. 
     • It provides wintering ground to migratory waterbirds, including over 80 species of CAF.
     • Fauna and Flora: Migratory birds include endangered Pallas’s fish-eagle, the vulnerable common pochard, and the near-threatened Dalmatian pelican, grey-headed fish-eagle and ferruginous duck, red-crested pochard. Resident birds include the vulnerable river tern and sarus crane and the nearthreatened black-necked stork. 
  3. Bhindawas Wildlife Sanctuary, Rohtak – is the largest wetland in Haryana & is manmade. 
     • Declared as a protected area in 1986 and was designated as an Eco-sensitive zone by the MoEFCC in 2011. 
     • Fauna and Flora: Threatened species like Egyptian vulture, steppe eagle, Pallas’s fish eagle, blackbellied tern; Mammals like nilgai, common mongoose and black-naped hare. 
  4. Sultanpur National Park, Gurugram – A shallow lake at the core is fed by the overflow from neighbouring canals and fields, and replenished by saline groundwater. 
     • MoEFCC declared the area within 5km of the Park as an eco-sensitive zone.
     • Fauna and Flora: critically endangered sociable lapwing, endangered Egyptian vulture, saker falcon, Pallas’s fish eagle and black-bellied tern. 
  5. Thol Lake Wildlife Sanctuary, Mehsana, Gujarat. On CAF
     • Fauna and Flora: critically endangered white-rumped vulture and sociable lapwing and the vulnerable sarus crane common pochard and lesser white-fronted goose. 
  6. Khijadia Wildlife Sanctuary, Coast of Gulf of Kutchh, Gujarat 
     • Formed following the creation of a bund (dike) in 1920 to protect farmland from saltwater ingress. 
     • Fauna and Flora: critically endangered Indian bdellium-tree, Dalmatian pelican, greylag goose. 
  7. Bakhira Wildlife Sanctuary, Uttar Pradesh (Near Gorakhpur)
     • It provides a safe wintering and staging ground for a large number of species of the CAF.

Montreux Record: 

List Wetlands of international Importance according to Ramsar Convention, which faces adverse changes in ecological character of the wetland.

• Only 2 currently from India: viz. 
  • Keoladeo National Park (1990): 
    • Overgrazing and water shortage; 
    • Paspalum distichum invasive grass species.
  • Loktak Lake, Manipur (1993): Deforestation, Pollution, A hydroelectric power plant has caused the local extinction of several native fish species.
• Chilka lake (1993) was placed in the record but was later removed from it in 2002.
  • Chilica Development Aurthority received Ramsar Wetland conservation Award 2002.
  • Water Bird Status Survey-2022: Odisha State Wildlife Organisation, the Chilika Development Authority (CDA) and the Bombay Natural History Society – take annual census.
  • 2022: 10 Lakh water birds (107 species) were counted in the entire lagoon. Last year, the count in the Chilika was over 12 lakhs. 
  • Important species found
  • Mongolian gull.
  • Pintail Ducks: Among the three-pintail species of ducks, the northern pintail, gadwall, Eurasian wigeon accounted for over one lakh (but less than 2021). 
  • Marginal decrease in northern shoveler, tufted duck and red crested pochard.  
  • Greater Flamingo: The increase in numbers for the greater flamingo at Nalabana mudflat indicates that the restoration at Nalabana is effective.   

Indian Efforts: 

• National Wetland Conservation Programme (NWCP): This programme was launched in 1986 and has identified some 115 wetlands for urgent protection and conservation.

• Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017 or Wetlands Rules: notified by M/o EFCC under the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 as regulatory framework for conservation and management of wetlands in India.

1. 1. • Applicability: All wetlands, irrespective of their location, size, ownership, biodiversity, or ecosystem services values, can be notified under the Wetlands Rules, except River channels; Paddy fields; and certain categories of Human-made waterbodies & those covered under CRZ rules

• Categories of Wetlands:

• Those designated as Wetlands of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention.

• Wetlands notified by the Central Government, State Government and UT Administration.

• National Wetlands Committee: Central Wetlands Regulatory Authority (CWRA) will be replaced with the committee to monitor the implementation of the rules.
• State Wetland Authority: Function as a nodal authority for all wetland-specific authorities within the State or UT Administration. State Environment Minister acts as its chairperson (Administrator in UT). 
  • Technical Committee to review Brief Documents, Management Plans and advise on any technical matter referred by the Wetlands Authority.
  • Grievance Committee of four members, to provide a mechanism for hearing and forwarding the grievances raised by the public to the Authority.
• Functions: 

1. Develops a list of activities, to be regulated and permitted within the ‘wetland’ areas;
2. Define strategies for conservation & wise use of wetlands within their jurisdiction;
3. Coordinate implementation.
4. Preparing a list of wetlands – based on wetlands definition of Ramsar Convention. 

• Wise-use approach: Ramsar Convention defines the ‘wise use’ of wetlands as “the maintenance of their ecological character, achieved through the implementation of ecosystem approaches, within the context of sustainable development”. Three types of activities

• Prohibited activities – encroachment, setting up of any industry and expansion of existing industries; Solid waste dumping, Discharge of untreated wastes from industries, Poaching etc. 
  • Permission can only be given by MoEF&CC recommendation of Wetlands Authority.
• Regulated activities – Subsistence level biomass harvesting, Sustainable fisheries practices, Plying of non-motorized boats; Construction of temporary nature.
• Account for pre-existing rights and privileges in a notified wetland.

• Guidelines for implementing Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017, recently notified by M/oEFCC.

 Other Organizations for the conservation of Wildlife:

• 2010: Central Wetland Regulatory Authority;
• 2017: State-level bodies and created a National Wetland Committee (an advisory role). 

What is a littoral and swamp forest?

Littoral forests and Swamp forests are also called wetland forests. India has a rich variety of these types of forests.

What is a swamp forest?

A swamp forest, also known as a forested wetland, is an area where trees grow in a wet, soft land, often near rivers, lakes, or coastlines, and characterized by poor drainage and plant life dominated by trees. 

What is the other name of littoral and swamp forest?

Common synonyms for ‘this’ include ‘that,’ ‘these,’ ‘those,’ and in some contexts, ‘it. ‘ The choice depends on the distance (physical or metaphorical) and the number (singular or plural) of the item(s) being referred to.

What are littoral forest also called?

Littoral forests also called wetland forests mainly occur near the sea coasts and tidal creeks.

Why is it called littoral?

Littoral comes from the latin littoralis “of or belonging to the seashore,” and it’s the transitional area between dry land and open water—an intertidal zone that is sometimes above and sometimes below the water level.