Moral thinkers from India
In Indian philosophy Ethics and religion are very closely related and whichever may be the religion, it contains within itself some system of morality for the guidance of its followers. Indians are spiritual in nature and give special attention to life beyond death.
The inner conscience also is the source and test of morality. Ex: Buddha says “Atma Dipo Bhava”.
Dharma
The Indian term for morality/ethics is ‘dharma’ or righteousness. Dharma comes from the root ‘dhr’, which means to hold together the entire residence of the world.
Thus, the function of dharma is to hold human society together for its stability and growth. Therefore, right conduct is essential if the human society is to survive. In Hinduism major tenets of the Dharma are as follows:
Purushartha
These are the four purposes of the life of a seeker:
- Dharma (righteousness): It is the right way to live. Also, it is a means value for attaining spiritual liberation.
- Artha (wealth): It is the attainment of riches and worldly prosperity, advantage, profit, and wealth in accordance with dharma.
- Kama (desire): It is a comprehensive term that includes all desires from cravings of the senses to the yearnings of the spirit.
- Indian ethics insists on a regulated enjoyment. There is always a clear emphasis on the enjoyment of secular pleasures along with the emphasis on the realization of spiritual values.
- Moksha (liberation): The first three Purusharthas are treated as the instrumental values, which directly or indirectly promote the Parama Purusharthas – the highest values of human life namely moksa.
- Moksa is also known as mukti, apavarya, kaivalya, and nirvana.
- It is intimately bound up with the Karma samsara, the doctrine of transmigration.
The purpose of the life of a seeker is to aspire for the above four Purushartha.
Varnashrama Dharma:
To fulfil the purpose of life one is required to live a life according to his “Varna”. These duties are also known as Svadharma. These are as per one’s temperament/qualities, for instance, Sattva Guna is the quality of a Brahmin, Rajas Guna is the quality of a Ruler, and so on. However, with time the varnashrama dharma which was originally based on one’s temperament deteriorated to birth-based distinctions and an evil caste system.
Anything that helps an individual to align with the Absolute is Dharma and which causes hindrance is Adharma. The Hindu concept of dharma has a close association with ritualistic & caste-oriented duties.
Sadharana Dharma
Yet the Hindu thinkers advocate and recommend the practice of moral virtues and moral norms, which make a man a man. These moral virtues are called Sadharana Dharma or universal duties.
Ashram Dharma
Life, according to the Ashram Dharma is divided into four stages or Ashramas:
- Brahmacari (Studenthood)
- Grihasthah (the householder)
- Vanaprastha (the forest dweller)
- Sannyasin (the mendicant): after abandoning all attachments, a man as an ascetic aims to work towards liberation or moksha.
A man should pass through these stages regularly and no man should enter any stage prematurely. This is important for the due development of Jivatma.
Ethics of Upanishads
In Upanishads (1000 BCE onwards) the Ideal goal of ethics is no longer divine happiness, but liberation from bondage to the transitory existence and the re-attainment of the inner essence of the soul. The Vedic sacrifices are irrelevant to the realization of moksa. One has to burn evil to become free from it.
- Good karma/Conduct is achieved when life is lived according to Dharma, i.e. living a life of righteousness.
- In the concept of reincarnation, the next existence takes shape by that which is determined by the actions undertaken by the body and the mind in the present life.
- This concept of karma induces moral ethics in a person to do what is right for himself, his family, his associates, his community, and in all the universe he is living in.
Dharmashastras & Itihasas:
It is the main book on Social Morality. This dharma text can be referred to as ‘dharmasutras’ or ‘dharmashastra’.
Manusmriti:
There is a mention of the 10 qualities/essential rules/characteristics of Dharma in a verse:
“Dhriti Kshama Damosteyam Shouchamindriya Nigrahah
Dheer Vidya Satyamakrodho Dashakam Dharma Lakshanam”
धृति क्षमा धम अस्तेय शौच इन्द्रियानिग्रह धी विद्या सत्यम अक्रोध दशकं धर्मलक्षणं |
- Dhrti (patience)
- Ks’ama (forgiveness)
- Dhama (self-control)
- Asteya (non-stealing)
- Shaoca (cleanliness)
- Indriyanigraha (control over organs)
- Dhii (benevolent intellect)
- Vidya’ (spiritual knowledge)
- Satyam (benevolent truthfulness)
- Akrodha (non-anger)
Hence following the path of Dharma does not help the seeker alone (to attain Moksha) but indirectly it governs the welfare of the society. Thus, the Dharmasastras, Epics, and the Puranas have their own specific goal but they seem to share more or less a common ‘ethos’.
Bhagwad Gita
Gita is a vast repository of wisdom. The Bhagavad Gita shows how everyone should live their daily lives in the world without having to deal with the repercussions of their actions.
- Gita reveals that there are two ways to live a human life- Pravritti, the way of action and advancement, and Nivritti, the way of introspection and spiritual growth. The Vedic ideas are embodied in the Bhagavad Gita.
- In the Bhagavad Gita, Shri Krishna imparts a priceless message that contrasts ego-centred living, which is characterized by constant striving, self-centred thinking, egoism, and suffering brought on by unfulfilled desires, union with undesirable objects, separation from desired objects, with divine-centred living, which is based upon correct knowledge, faith, devotion, self-surrender, detachment, and dispassionate performance of tasks.
- The human soul (inner being) is an eternal entity co-existing with the Supreme Being.
- Rebirth Theory: Every soul goes through the Cycle of rebirths to reap the fruits of their actions.
- Karma Theory: When a soul comes to be associated with the gross material body, it is bound to perform certain deeds and in conformity with laws divine, reap the fruits thereof.
- Brahamjnana: Liberation from all kinds of bondages is possible only by the realization of the Brahman or surrender unto the Lord and vice versa. Actions are to be performed with the realization of Brahmajnana. To attain the Brahma jnana one is advised to make a diligent search through devotion, renunciation, and self-surrender.
- Gita emphasizes both Karma Yoga and Gnana Yoga for the attainment of the Supreme Bliss, but Karma Yoga is superior to Gnana Yoga.
- Karma Yoga simply means a mode of realizing the Brahman through devotional meditation on the name of God, and the practice of one’s own duties without any attachment. Actions are to be performed without any attachment to the fruit of the actions (Nishkama Karma).
- By this One will be blessed with Brahmayoga, which will lead him not only to moral success but also to infinite spiritual joy and peace.
The Theory of Karma
कृतप्रणाश (krit pranash): actions don’t get destroyed. They remain attached to Our Soul/Spirit/Self, Indestructible.
अकृत्याभ्युपगम (akritabhyoopagama): We shall not have to Suffer for what We have Not done.
As per Bhagwat Gita:
कर्मण्येवाधिकारस्ते मा फलेषु कदाचन
मा कर्मफलहेतुर्भूर्मा ते सङ्गोऽस्त्वकर्मणि
Meaning: “You have a right to perform your prescribed duty, but you are not entitled to the fruits of action. Never consider yourself the cause of the results of your activities, and never be attached to not doing your duty.”
Indian Philosopher
Ethical sensibility is very essential for humanity to establish a tolerant, peaceful, and prosperous society. Down through the centuries, in India, many religious personalities, leaders, social reformers, and philosophers preached on the rational ground of morality. Let us discuss their contributions in detail one by one.
Gautama Buddha:
Key lessons of morality from the philosophy of Buddha are as follows:
- Concept of Karma: Our actions affect the planet in a harmful way because actions are done with selfish motives. The effects of karma will continue to work in a person’s rebirth, so by being compassionate, we will improve our own future and that of the Environment.
- Bhavana: A pure mind, a well-trained mind, a well-developed mind, a mind that can be controlled at will, a mind that does not go on to subjects that are conducive to tension and boredom, but keeps alert, keeps on developing itself, and discovering itself is the man’s greatest treasure.
- Karuna: Compassion can be easily generated in humans. When somebody is in trouble, his heart moves and he rushes to help him.
- Upekkha: loving-kindness and total equanimity are difficult to develop. When one has no friends, no enemies, no one higher, and no one lower. Such a person has absolutely no distinctions between one person and another and is totally merged in a kind of unity with all beings, all things, and all situations. So once you are able to live a life in which all these four characteristics govern your actions, there is no place for hatred, rivalry, and competition.
- Mindfulness: One should develop self-awareness. That is to observe one’s present thoughts, feelings, and sensations without judgment. This is a state of bare awareness. It is not only a tool for spiritual exploration but also a cure-all for stress, anxiety, and depression.
- Momentariness: As per this tenet everything that has originated is bound to perish, so there is temporariness or momentariness in everything. Thus, the world at every moment is distinct from what it was in the previous moment or what it will be in the next moment. This truth is helpful in the practice of non-attachment and selflessness as nothing is permanent in this world. This concept is of immense help in modern times in domains such as conflict resolution, administration as well as international relations.
- Eightfold Path (Astangika-marga): The path consists of various interconnected activities related to knowledge, conduct, and meditative practices.
- Right View
- Right Intention
- Right Speech
- Right Action
- Right Livelihood
- Right Mindfulness
- Right Effort
- Right Concentration
- Buddha also set a code of conduct for both monastics and laymen to follow which are also known as the Five Precepts or Panchasheel:
- Truth (Satya)
- Non-violence (Ahinsa)
- Not to steal (Aparigraha)
- Non-possession (Asteya)
- Sexual Misconduct (Brahmacharya)
Chanakya/Kautilya
Kautilya or Vishnugupta was the author of the famous Indian treatise Arthashastra which is essentially a political text written in ancient India. Chanakya assisted Chandragupta, in the establishment of the Mauryan Empire.
Key lessons from the philosophy of Kautilya:
- “Yogakshema” or the welfare state: Kautilya highlighted the crucial role of the State in ensuring the well-being of the nation and people. Kautilya emphasized the ethical conduct of the king by saying that the king should be responsible to his subjects. He said, “In the happiness of the subjects lies the happiness of the king; in their welfare his welfare. The king shall not consider what pleases himself as good; whatever pleases his subjects is only good for him”.
- Order in Society: The King should safeguard the social order based on the ancient varna and the Asrama system Which is prescribed in the Vedas and, divinely ordained.
- Moral conduct for individuals: He laid down major ideals of ethical conduct that apply to all individuals irrespective of the social class they may belong to. He prescribed the duties of ahimsa (refraining from injury), Satya (truthfulness), Sauca (purity), Anasuya (freedom from malice), Anrsamsya (compassion) and Kshama (forgiveness) for all. He also recommended that all individuals should follow austerity in life.
- “Artha” or material possessions: The idea of ‘Artha’ has a broader meaning beyond personal possessions. Money is valuable only to the extent it serves as a means to acquire necessary goods. The welfare of society as a whole should be above the individual interests. Thus, individuals should ethically mould their wealth-generation activities.
- Need to control corruption: Corrupt administrators were given an analogy of a fish in water that cannot be caught when it drinks water. Kautilya proposed a strong penal system for tackling corruption and ensuring probity in civil administration.
- Dharma- a king’s responsibility: The king must spread Dharma in society. To ensure that innocent people are not penalized in any way and guarantee social fairness, a king can punish the wicked. Cases should be heard as quickly as possible and justice should not be delayed.
Chanakya: moral stories |
Once, Chandragupta went on a war, without consulting Chanakya. After winning the war, he went to Chanakya with excitement and informed about the war. Chanakya asked, just tell me how you arranged the food for the soldiers during the war? Chandragupta then replied, nearby village people, gave their stocked food supply to us. Chanakya asked, did you give anything to them after winning the war? Chandragupta said no. Then Chanakya said with anger, you are incapable of being king, only winning the war is not important, you should look after your people first. Chandragupta realized his mistake and then went to the people and gave them food supplies. |
| 2. The story of the lamp: The moral conduct
Once, a Chinese traveller came to meet Kautilya. When the traveller entered Chanakya’s room, he saw that Chanakya was busy writing some important papers under the lighting of an oil lamp. Chanakya smilingly welcomed his guest and asked him to sit. He then quickly completed the work that he was doing. Then he extinguished the oil lamp under which he was writing and lit another lamp. The Chinese traveller was surprised to see. He asked Chanakya, “Is this a custom in India when a guest arrives at your house? Chanakya replied, “No my dear friend. There is no such custom. When you entered, I was doing official work. The oil filled in that lamp has been bought from the money from the National treasury. Now, I am talking to you. This is a personal, not related to my nation; so, I cannot use that lamp now, as it will lead to a waste of the money of the national treasury. Hence, I extinguished that lamp and lit this other lamp, since the oil in this lamp has been bought from my personal money.” |
Thiruvalluvar
Thiruvallur was a weaver by profession. His book “Thirukurral or Kural belongs to the Late-Sangam period and has been listed as one of the major parts of the Sangam corpus. This book contains the seeds of modern ethical ideas which are considered relevant even in contemporary Times.
Tirukkural is a moral compendium that has three major parts; Aram (righteousness), porul (wealth), ibam (enjoyment). Thiruvalluvar has given many concepts in Thirukkural regarding king and kingdom which are similar to the contemporary concepts of political science like state, government, etc.
Key moral lessons from the philosophy of Thiruvallur are as follows:
- Code of Ethics: Thirukkural is a comprehensive work that covers different aspects of human life and moral dilemmas. The core theme of the book is how to be a rational and practical person. He also prescribed the resolution of moral dilemmas by the use of reasoning and wisdom. He had listed the moral principles to be followed in his personal life as a moral code to avoid self-degradation.
- Universal values: The book focuses on universal ethics related to humanity, love, relations, and contracts.
- The Ideal King: An ideal king should have qualities like Courage, a Liberal hand, Wisdom & energy, Knowledge, strong decision-making, and so on. The duties of King are also prescribed such as Identifying resources, collecting revenue, Protecting revenue, Distribution of revenue, etc.
- The ideal kingdom: As per Thirukkural “A Nation should have 5 key elements – Good health, Good economy, Harvest, Happiness and Strong defence “. The Kingdom should ideally have Complete cultivation, No Excessive starvation, Virtuous persons, no Irremediable epidemics, Merchants with inexhaustible wealth, Destructive foes, and so on. There are six major components of a kingdom People, Army, Resources, Ministry, Friendship, and Fort.
- Personal and Public life is interdependent: A person cannot be compartmentalized and both public and private life has a bearing on each other. To have a good personal life, a person in public life should follow certain fundamental principles of good conduct and character and vice versa. The book also underlines the importance of having qualities like honesty, integrity, and conscience in an individual’s life.
Useful Excerpts From The “Thirukkural” |
|
Swami Vivekananda:
Swami Vivekananda was a great spiritual leader. Swami Vivekanand worked on a wide range of subjects such as Vedanta Philosophy, Karma Yoga (1896), Raja Yoga (1896), etc. He said the countrymen should have ‘muscles of iron’, ‘nerves of steel’, and ‘minds like a thunderbolt’. Due to this his birth anniversary (January 12th) is celebrated as National Youth Day. His major teachings are as follows:
- Intrinsic purity of the Atman and non-individuality: Prevalent morality is mostly based on fear i.e. fear of the police, public ridicule, god’s punishment, fear of karma, etc. These should not be the reason to be moral. One should be pure because purity is our real nature of the true divine Self or Atman. So, we should love and serve others because we are all one in the Supreme Spirit.
- Character is the real wealth: Each human being using his own potential should guide himself to Atma-Nirmana (i.e. character building) and at the same time play an active role in the progress and well-being of society.
- Education and society: Indian society had its own model of education like Guru-shishya parampara, which should be maintained at any cost.
- Service to mankind is Service to God: He said, “As long as the millions live in hunger and ignorance, I hold each man a traitor.” This call inspired the youngsters to serve the suffering humanity.
- National awakening: By saying “Arise, Awake, and Stop not till the goal is achieved”, he inspired youngsters with the spirit of nationalism. He wanted youth to be leaders and contribute to national awakening.
- Universal tolerance: The famous speech of Vivekananda at the World Parliament of Religions, emphasized universal tolerance. The spirituality of India and the materialism of the West should combine to create greater well-being for humanity. Best of all religion should guide mankind to prosperity.
- Meaningful life: He recommended the youth to live a meaningful life through different quests like physical quests (for physical fitness), social quests (undertaking social activities for the betterment of society), intellectual quests (for building intellectual strength), and spiritual quests (for achieving spiritual well-being).
- Socialistic fervour: He was one of the earliest Indian philosophers to favour socialism. All people should be able to satisfy their material needs and have less work, no oppression, no war, and more food.”
- Patriotism: Vivekananda emphasized the need to instil a sense of patriotism, humanity, and national pride.
- Education: It was founded on the principles enshrined in the Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, and Advaita Vedanta. The main aim of education should be character building and assimilation of ideas. For Vivekananda education is “the manifestation of the perfection already in man” and religion is “the manifestation of the Divinity already in man.”
Mahatma Gandhi:
In his biography ‘My Experiments with Truth’, Gandhi ji elaborated on various aspects of ethics and morality as well. His ethical values were mainly based on ancient Hindu texts like Bhagavad Gita and for him, dharma was everything. The Dharma in the Indian tradition, refers to righteous conduct. Gandhi himself set an example of personal integrity, honesty, transparent public and private life, and justice. Following are the key Gandhian lessons at the individual level:
Seven Deadly Sins by Gandhi |
Gandhiji identified the seven unethical practices which one must not commit:
|
- God: As per him, absolute truth i.e. absolute reality is god and morality. Devotion to Truth (God) is the sole justification for our existence. All our activities should be directed towards finding the Truth. In his words, “Truth should be the very breath of our life”.
- Truth: According to Gandhiji truth is the Reflection of God. Truth can be achieved in a wider sense, where truth does not only mean being truthful in speech but truth should be applied in all fields of life. God is the ultimate immortal superpower who created the universe and we can realize God within ourselves only by following the path of truth.
- Non-violence: As per him Non-violence is the strongest force that can be shown by one with strong character. As per him, Ahimsa is infinite love or infinite capacity of suffering. He used non-violence to make the wrongdoer realize the truth.
- Means and Ends debate: Gandhi said that means and ends are inseparable and indivisible. Means (method/techniques) and Ends (goals/outcome) should mutually justify each other, and no one should give preference over another. He called off the non-cooperation movement in 1922 even when it was at its peak, Because the means (use of violence) was not matching the ends. This is also reflected when he said, “Be the change you wish to see in the world”.
- Swachatta or Sanitation– Gandhi said, “Sanitation is more important than independence”. His dream was total sanitation for all. Cleanliness is most important for not only physical but also mental well-being. He said, “I will not let anyone walk through my mind with their dirty feet.”
- Sarvodaya or Upliftment of all: Sarvodaya refers to the universal welfare of all living beings. Sarvodaya is the true panacea for social/political problems experienced by India.
- Trusteeship: The property owners should see themselves as mere trustees of this wealth therefore they should use the property for the well-being of society as a whole. They should take only as much as was required for a moderately comfortable life.
- Sarva-Dharma-Sambhav: To prevent tensions caused by religious intolerance, Gandhi advocated “Sarva Dharma Sambhav”. That says all religions are true and man should have respect and tolerance towards all religions.
- Moral life: A moral life is a life of self-sacrifice. He believed in simple living. Everyone should do some bread labour. Also, everyone should do his own work himself and should not depend on anyone else.
- Gandhian concept of Swaraj: His idea of Swaraj called for the decentralization of power. He envisioned an India made up of thousands of autonomous villages. According to the Gandhian concept of Ram-rajya, swaraj must first be created in our hearts before it can be formed in our societies.
- Satyagraha: In a conflict situation satyagraha aims at a fundamental social and political change. It is characterized by adherence to truth, non-violence, and self-suffering, for the sake of the greater good. It can change the heart of the perpetrator.
- Untouchability: As per Gandhi, untouchability is a moral crime. He advocated the equality of all human beings. He made efforts to bring basic change in caste structure by uplifting untouchability and not by abolishing caste.
Rabindranath Tagore
Tagore was a Bengali poet, philosopher, and polymath. He was the first non-European to win the Nobel Prize in Literature, in 1913 for his collection of poems, Geetanjali.
In addition to his poetry, Tagore also wrote several essays, plays, and novels, and was a good painter as well. He was also a key figure in the Indian Renaissance, a movement that sought to revive Indian art, literature, and culture.
Rabindranath Tagore’s philosophical thoughts encompass a number of different themes. Here are some major contributions from him:
- Social reform: Tagore was also deeply committed to social and political reform, and was a vocal critic of British colonial rule in India.
- Education: He founded Shantiniketan, for a holistic approach to education. He emphasized that young minds should stay close to nature therefore he established Shantiniketan as close to nature. He sought to promote cultural exchange and understanding between East and West through a curriculum having learnings from both East and West.
- Universal Peace: He was a staunch advocate of universal peace, Humanity, social justice, and human rights. He was against violence and war.
- Unity of all things: All things in the universe are interconnected and interdependent, and the boundaries between them are illusory. He saw the universe as a single entity and believed that human beings are intimately connected to nature and each other. Thus human prosperity is possible only when all beings on this earth are happy.
- Supremacy of love: Love is the fundamental force that animates the universe, and it is the key to human happiness and prosperity. Love is a force that transcends individual interests and binds us all beings together in an eternal bond.
- Individual and society: Tagore believed that the individual is responsible for contributing to society as per his capacity. This contribution should be grounded in love and compassion. He advocated social justice and equality to ensure the empowerment of the poor and marginalized.
- The Truth: Truth is not something that can be discovered once and for all, rather it is an ongoing process of exploration and discovery. The pursuit of truth is the highest goal of human life. Through rigorous inquiry, we can arrive at a deeper understanding of the world and find out our place in the world.
- Creativity for Transformation: Creativity is a powerful force for personal and social transformation, and through arts we can discover and connect with the deeper truths of the universe. He saw art as a powerful means of expressing the human spirit which is able to transcend the limitations of language and culture.
Amartya Sen
Amartya Sen, an economist and Nobel Prize 1998 awardee for his contributions to welfare economics and social choice theory. He showed keen interest in the problems of society’s poorest sections. His major contributions are as follows:
- Capability Approach: It enlarges the sphere of human development by bringing people to the centre of development. The purpose of development should be to enlarge all human choices and not only income. Thus, it is the duty of the state to invest in people and enable them to use those capacities appropriately. It focuses upon the moral significance of individuals’ capability of achieving the kind of lives they have reason to value.
- The capability approach is unlike established approaches to ethical evaluation, such as utilitarianism or resourcism, which focus mainly on subjective well-being or the availability of means to the good life, respectively.
- Welfare Economics: It evaluates economic policies in terms of their effects on the well-being of the community and not in terms of economic growth/returns.
- The idea of Justice: The objective of justice should be more concerned with the elimination of removable injustices rather than defining a perfectly just society. The capability approach states that a state is more just, if its people enjoy more freedoms to live a life that they have reason to value.
- Tolerance: In societies where there exists a healthy culture of debate and dissent; and people exercise tolerance to each other’s point of view, they flourish in all measures.
Previous year Questions |
|
