Fuels (Non-Renewables)
Natural resources can be classified as
- Exhaustible Natural Resources: Coal, Petroleum
- Inexhaustible Natural Resources: Sunlight, air
Similarly, Sources of Energy can be classified as:
- On the Basis of Renewability:
- Non-renewable or exhaustible: source of energy which have accumulated in nature over a very, very long time and can’t be quickly replaced when exhausted For example, fossil fuels, nuclear fuels.
- Dug out from earth, limited amount
- Renewable/inexhaustible/alternate Sources of Energy: produced continuously in nature, can be used again and again, never get exhaust For example, hydroenergy, wind energy, solar energy, energy from sea, wood.
- Future: In order to fulfil its commitment under COP-21, Government will continue to promote CNG vehicles, Electric vehicles, Auto-LPG, and LNG as long-haul fuel will be pushed.
- Non-renewable or exhaustible: source of energy which have accumulated in nature over a very, very long time and can’t be quickly replaced when exhausted For example, fossil fuels, nuclear fuels.
- On the Basis of Technology:
- Conventional: familiar to most people. Have simple methods of extraction & Use.
- Non-Conventional: Nuclear fuels are non-renewable and non-conventional
Fuel: Material which are burnt to produce heat energy.
- Can be renewable such as bio-fuels; or Non-Renewable such as Coal and Petroleum.
Characteristic of a good fuel:
- Should be high calorific value: Gives more energy per Kg of weight.
- Is not polluting: does not produce harmful gas
- Proper ignition temp (higher than room temp): Otherwise it would burn automatically.
- Easy to handle
- Safe to Transport
- Easily storable;
- Low rate of evaporation at room temperature.
- Accessible, Affordable, cheap
- Low percentage of non-combustible material: Thus, leaves less residue, such as fly Ash or particulate matter.
Fossil Fuels: Plants and animals died millions of years ago were gradually buried in the earth and covered with sediments. They then underwent anaerobic decomposition, in high temperature and pressure environment.
- Coal, Petroleum and natural Gases are examples of fossil fuels.
- Burried remains of large terrestrial vegetation turned into coal. Softer tissues such as underwater plantations and organisms converted into Petroleum and natural gas.
Coal & Petroleum
A natural fuel such as coal or oil, that was formed millions of years ago from dead animals or plants in the ground.
Coal:
- About 300Mya, earth had dense forest in low lying wetlands. Due to natural processes like flooding, these forests got buried under soil. Compressed, temperature rose as they sank deeper.
- Carbonisation: Slow process of conversion of dead vegetation inside earth into coal.
Types:
- Coke: Tough, porous, & black substance. Almost pure form of carbon. Coke is used in manufacture of steel & in extraction of many metals. Burns without smoke in adequate amount of Oxygen.
- Coal Tar: Black thick liquid with unpleasant smell, mixture of 200 substances.
- Coal gas: Obtained during processing of coal to get coke. Used as fuel in many industries situated near coal processing plants.
Petroleum:
- Natural resource from which Petrol & diesel are obtained. Formed from organisms living in sea. As these died, their bodies settled at the bottom of the sea & got covered with layer of sand & clay. Over millions of year, absence of air, high temperature and high pressure transformed the dead organisms into petroleum & natural gas.
- World’s first oil well was drilled in Pennsylvania, USA, in 1859.
- Eight year later, in 1867, oil was stuck at Makum in Assam. Found in: Assam, Gujarat, Mumbai, High & in river basins of Krishna & Godavari.
- Refining of Petroleum: Process of separating various constituents/fractions of petroleum.
- Petroleum gas (LPG), Petrol, Kerosene, Diesel, Lubricating oil, Paraffin wax, Bitumen.
- Petroleum gas: used as for domestic heating purpose in form of LPG, mixture of 3 hydrocarbons ethane, propane, butane (main constituent). A strong-smelling substance ethyl mercaptan is added.
- Petrol(gasoline): used as a fuel in motor car, vehicles
- Diesel: used as fuel in heavy vehicles, run water pump, generator
- Kerosene: household fuel (stoves to cook food) and as an illuminant in lamps
- A special grade of kerosene oil used as “aviation fuel” aeroplanes
- Fuel oil (oil): “better fuel than coal” because it burns completely
- Petroleum coke or pet coke: It’s a Solid and is categorized as a “bottom of the barrel” fuel.
- It contains 90% carbon and 3% to 6% sulphur; thus emits 11% more greenhouse gases than coal, nearly 17 times more sulphur than coal, fine dust, and vanadium which is a toxic metal.
- These are widely used by cement factories, dyeing units, paper mills, brick kilns and ceramics businesses. India is its largest consumer importing over half its annual pet coke consumption mainly from the United States.
- 2019: Ban on Petcoke import.
- Heavy fuel oil (HFO) also known as “residual fuel oil”. It is considered as the world’s dirtiest and is a tar-like residual waste from the oil refining process with high Sulphur content.
- Natural Gas: Easy to transport, less polluting, cleaner(residue), can be directly used (without processing)
- A network of pipelines exists in Vadodara and some parts of Delhi & other places.
- PCRA: Petroleum Conservation Research Association.
- See: Natural Gas Page.
| Knocking |
It is a thuding sound of fuel inside the engine cylinder. It is caused by self-ignition of the fuel due to high pressure before the actual spark in the engine. This can rupture the engine.
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Combustion and Flame
- Types of Combustion:
- Rapid Combustion: Eg: Phosphorus buring at room temperature.
- Spontaneous combustion: Material suddenly bursts into flames, without application of any apparent cause
- Explosion: pressure raised due to abrupt rise in temperature.
- Flames: Substances which vaporise during burning, Eg: Kerosene oil & molten wax.
- Charcoal do not vaporise & do not form flames.
- Zones of flame: Of a Wax Candle flame.
- Innermost: least hot. Unburnt wax vapours: black.
- Middle zone: Moderately hot. Partial Combustion: Yellow
- Outermost zone: Hottest part. Complete combustion: Blue.
- Calorific Value: amount of energy produced on complete combustion of 1kg of fuel expressed in kJ/kg.
- Pollutants in a flame:
- Unburnt Carbon particles: Very fine; Cause respiratory diseases
- Carbon Mono-oxide: Incomplete combustion. Can kill
- Carbon dioxide: Global warming
- NO2, SO2: Sulphur: Coal & Diesel. Corrosive in nature; Nitrogen: Petrol, Acid rain.
- Fun Fact:
- Black Carbon (BC): Major component of Soot;
- It is a Short-lived climate pollutant [See CCAC in UNEP led programs].
- Brown Carbon: combustion of Organic biomass; Exists with black carbon.
- Blue Carbon: Carbon sequestered in coastal ecosystem; Mangrove forests, seagrass meadows or intertidal saltmarshes.
- Black Carbon (BC): Major component of Soot;
Fuel Related News:
- 2019: Members of the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) have reached an agreement on reducing their greenhouse gas emissions from shipping by at least 50% of 2008 levels by 2050. IMO has been tasked by Kyoto Protocol, to reduce pollution from Shipping.
- International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL), under IMO, is the main international convention covering prevention of pollution of the marine environment by ships from operational or accidental causes.
- Most ships used Heavy fuel oil (HFO) also known as “residual fuel oil”. It is considered as the world’s dirtiest and is a tar-like residual waste from the oil refining process with high Sulphur content.
- News: From 1 January 2020, ships will only be allowed to use fuel oil with a very low sulphur content, under rules brought in by IMO, or face penalties (levied by IMO).
- Corporate Average Fuel Efficiency/Economy (CAFE) Regulation, 2017: aims at lowering fuel consumption (or improving fuel efficiency) of vehicles by lowering CO2 emissions.
- Corporate Average refers to sales-volume weighted average for every auto manufacturer.
- Regulation:
- The norms are applicable for petrol, diesel, LPG and CNG passenger vehicles.
- Average corporate CO2 emission from vehicle must be less than 130 gm per km till 2022 and below 113 gm per km thereafter.
- CAFE norms require cars to be 30% or more fuel efficient from 2022 and 10% or more between 2017 and 2021.
- Recently, the Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) issued draft guidelines for aeroplane operators flying on international routes for implementation of Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA).
- CORSIA is the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) resolution for a global market-based measure to address CO2 emissions from international aviation from 2021 to 2035.
- All civilian international operations undertaken by operators are covered by CORSIA with exceptions for humanitarian, medical and fire–fighting flights.
Energy Security & Oil Game
Need for energy Security:
- Demand: India’s energy demand is set to double by 2040 according to IEA.
- Import Dependence: India imports 70% of imports of oil that it consumes.
- Affordable and Clean Energy: SDG-7 calls to “Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all.”
- Cost of power supply interruption: According to the World Bank, India loses 4% of GDP each year due to the intermittent power supply.
Petro Dollar:
- 1974: US & Saudi: All Oil purchases to be done in US dollars.
- 2/3rd of all currency reserves are in dollars. Most of it is used to buy oil.
- 40% of all debt issued is in US Dollars.
OPEC: Organization of Petroleum Exporting countries:
rounded in 1960.
- Its members own the 81.5% of world’s proven oil reserves. It aims to unify petroleum pricing of its members.
- Present members (15): Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Republic of Congo, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Venezuela.
- Its membership will reduce to 14 when Qatar leaves;
- Indonesia is no longer its member as it doesn’t export much oil now.
- It trades only in Dollars.
- Opec+ controls 40% of the world’s crude oil,
- Problems created by OPEC:
- The Annual contract with OPEC+ countries allows suppliers to reduce supplies when they decide to lower production levels to hike crude prices.
- Asian Premium: a charge of 10% by OPEC countries on Oil exported to Asian countries.
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- It is in addition to the 10% discount to the western countries.
- Oil buyers’ Club (India’s proposal): Possibility is discussed with China on lines of OPEC to negotiate better terms with sellers as well as getting more US Crude oil to Asia to cut dominance of the oil block. This idea was first floated at International Energy Forum (IEF).
- India, Jap, China & Korea are the primary consumers of energy markets today.
India’s Oil price sensitive economy:
India imports more than 80% of its oil.
- ‘Urja Sangam‘ conference in March 2015, Prime Minister Narendra Modi had said that India needs to 67% by 2022, when India will celebrate its 75th year of independence.
- Import Substitution strategies:
- Ethanol blending in petrol has risen to 6% at present and the blending would rise further to 10% by 2022.
- Increasing Domestic output: However, in 2018–19, India’s consumption growing at a brisk pace and domestic output remaining stagnant, India’s oil import dependence has risen from to 83.7%, according to the oil ministry’s Petroleum Planning and Analysis Cell (PPAC)
- India’s Oil refining capacity is 250mn Tonnes which would increase to 450mn Tonnes in 10 years.
- India’s Oil Imports:
- India is the world’s third largest crude oil importer and imports 84% of its oil requirements. India’s oil import bill in FY20 and FY19 was $101.4 billion and $111.9 billion, respectively.
- Top import dependency In February 2021: Iraq, US (14% of overall imports, Imports by refiners increased by 48% in 1 year), Nigeria, Saudi Arabia.
- Traditionally, Opec+ and Saudi Arabia have been our mainstay suppliers, accounting for 86% of Indian oil imports.
- India reducing oil imports from OPEC: It has fell to the lowest in 20 years.
Oil Reforms:
- Daily Fixing of Oil prices (2017): Oil marketing companies introduced a daily revision of petrol & diesel prices. This shields the state-owned oil companies from the volatility in global crude prices which keep changing every day. Consumers will be more aligned to market dynamics.
- Strategic Crude (Oct’16): To ensure energy security, the Government of India is setting up strategic crude oil storages. These would be in addition to the existing storages of crude oil and petroleum products with the oil companies and would serve as a cushion in response to external supply disruptions.
- Phase I: Underground storages in Visakhapatnam, Mangalore and Padur (Karnataka) to store about 5.33mn tonnes of crude oil to guard against global price shocks and supply disruptions.
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- Its construction is being managed by Indian Strategic Petroleum Reserves Limited (ISPRL), an SPV a wholly owned subsidiary of Oil Industry Development Board (OIDB).
- Under Phase II storage program, plans currently are afoot to create Strategic Petroleum Reserves at two locations, namely Chandikhol(Odisha), Bikaner(Rajasthan) and Rajkot(Gujarat)which entails storage of crude oil in underground rock caverns and underground salt caverns respectively.
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- strategic oil storage facilities are made up of excavated rock caverns.
- Petroleum & Natural gas rules of 1959:
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- Amendment in definition of Petroleum: Naturally occurring hydrocarbon in the form of natural gas or in a liquid, viscous or solid form, or a mixture thereof but not coal lignite and helium occurring in association with petroleum or coal or shale.
- Old definition: “Free state”. This prevented the use of shale.
- Amendment in definition of Petroleum: Naturally occurring hydrocarbon in the form of natural gas or in a liquid, viscous or solid form, or a mixture thereof but not coal lignite and helium occurring in association with petroleum or coal or shale.
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- Environment ministry exempted oil and gas exploration firms, looking to conduct exploratory drilling from seeking Environmental Clearances.
- It is for both off-shore and on-shore explorations and the process is an ecologically intensive exercise that involves digging multiple wells and conducting seismic surveys offshore.
- Till now, even exploratory surveys were under Category ‘A’ environmental scrutiny – i.e.
- They all required EIA (Environmental impact assessment).
- From now on, these will be under the ‘B2’ category. This means it will be conducted by the states concerned and will not require an EIA.
- This move is part of a larger process of decentralization by the centre, and it seeks to farm more regulatory actions to the state and the local government.
- Onshore drilling sites as a hydrocarbon block will continue to be in category A.
- Investments:
- ONGC Videsh has a stake in 35 oil and gas projects in 15 Countries, viz. Azerbaijan (2 projects), Bangladesh (2 Projects), Brazil (2 projects), Colombia (7 projects), Iran (1 project), Iraq (1 project), Libya (1 project), Mozambique (1 Project), Myanmar (6 projects), Russia (3 projects), South Sudan (2 projects), Syria (2 projects), UAE (1 project), Venezuela (2 projects), and Vietnam (2 projects).
- Farzad-B gas field: ONGC Videsh Ltd. will rework the $6.2 billion cost of developing the Farzad-B gas field in the Persian Gulf, which it had discovered a decade back, to get Iran to award rights to the field to. This is the largest project and the first one run by any foreign company in Russia having 100% equity.
- ONGC Videsh Ltd (OVL), the overseas arm of ONGC, entered Sakhalin-1, a large oil and gas field in the Far East offshore in Russia, in 2001. India invested over $2.5 billion in Sakhalin-1.
- South Azadegan Oilfield: ONGC Videsh Ltd. will also bid for development rights of Iran’s giant South Azadegan Oilfield in direct competition with the likes of global giants like Shell, France’s Total, Petronas of Malaysia and Russia’s Gazprom.
BS-VI
Bharat Stage norms (2000): Emission control standards put in place by the government to keep a check on air pollution.
- They are based on the Euro norms these standards set specifications/limits for the release of air pollutants from equipment using internal combustion engines, including vehicles.
- Typically, the higher the stage, the more stringent the norms.
- Engine Technical specifications:
- BS-V: Uses Diesel particulate filter.
- BS-VI: Uses Selective Catalytic reduction technology.
BS-VI Norms:
- Particulate matter emission: Same in BS-V and BS-VI is same for diesel cars, but 80% less than BS IV.
- Nitrogen oxide (NOx): 55% less in BS-VI over BS-V which in itself is 28% lower than BS IV.
- Sulphur content: Same in BS-V and -VI at 10 ppm, though it is substantially less than 50 ppm mandated for both the fuels under BS-IV.
Implementation of BS-6 in India
The Centre has notified the Bharat Stage (BS)-VI emission standards for two-wheelers and four-wheelers from April 2020 across the country.
- To skip the BS-V emission standards and move directly to BS-VI. At present:
- BS-IV norms are being followed in over 30 cities.
- BS-III: Rest of the country. [BS-IV in the rest of the country 2017]
- MoRTH has given the Union Petroleum Ministry four years to make BS-VI fuels available to auto companies.
- Oil companies will be investing more than ₹60,000Cr towards BS-VI fuels. BS-VI is the Indian equivalent of the Euro-VI norms.
- MoRTH’s Order (2020): Distinct colour band for number plate sticker for BS-6 four-wheel vehicles. Mandating a strip of green colour of 1 cm width on top of the existing sticker carrying details of registration for BS-VI vehicles of any fuel type i.e. for petrol or CNG. Till now they had a light blue colour sticker and a diesel vehicle which is orange colour. Therefore, no different colour stickers.
Challenges in the Implementation of BS-6
- Investment in Technology:
- Vehicle Cost increase per unit impacting market viability: ₹20,000 for petrol cars, ₹65-90,000 for diesel cars, ₹2.25 Lakh for heavy commercial vehicles. Even two-wheelers require fuel injection technology that will spike prices by ₹3000-6000.
- Increase in fuel cost.
- Cost of upgrading refineries: ₹25,000 CR to ₹30,000 CR
Non-renewable fuels are energy sources formed from the remains of ancient plants and animals over millions of years. They are finite and cannot be replenished within a human lifetime.
The major types of non-renewable fuels are:
Coal
Petroleum (Crude Oil)
Natural Gas
Nuclear Fuels (Uranium, Thorium)
They are essential for:
Electricity generation
Transportation
Industrial production
Domestic energy needs
Economic development
Advantages include:
High energy output
Easy to transport & store
Well-established infrastructure
Reliable & consistent supply
Disadvantages include:
Limited availability (finite reserves)
Environmental pollution
Greenhouse Gas emissions (CO₂, Methane)
Health hazards from mining & burning
Contribution to Climate Change
