Forests of India

Forests are large ecosystems dominated by trees, plants, and wildlife. 

• They cover about 31% of Earth’s land area. 
• They provide oxygen, store carbon, regulate climate, and support biodiversity. 
• They play a crucial role in ecosystem balance, water cycles, and livelihoods.

Forests are classified into tropical, temperate, and boreal types.

For example, Trees occupy the top vertical strata or layer of a forest, shrubs the 2nd and herbs and grasses occupy the bottom layers.

Types & Distribution of Forests 

In India, management, control and regulation of most of the forests is done by the government either through the Forest Department directly or other government departments. The forests are classified under the Indian Forest Act, of 1927:

1. Reserve forest: More than half of the total forest land in India is reserve forest. These are considered most valuable as far as the conservation of forest and wildlife resources is concerned. In these forests, rights to all activities are banned in reserved forests unless specific orders are issued otherwise. 
2. Protected Forests: one-third of all forest area in India is protected from any further depletion. In protected areas, rights to activities like hunting and grazing are sometimes given to communities living on the fringes of the forest, who sustain their livelihood partially or wholly from forest resources or products.
3. Unclassified forests: Other forests and wastelands belonging to both govt. and private individuals of the community.

Classification Forest Right Act

Permanent forests: 

Reserved and Protected forests are together known as Permanent Forests. These forests are not evenly distributed.

• MP has largest area under permanent forests, constituting 75% of its total area. 
• Next: JK, AP, UK, Kerala, TN, WB, and Maharashtra (now AP, Chhattisgarh.) have a large%age of reserved forests.
• Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, HP, Odisha and Rajasthan have the bulk of it under the “protected forest” category.
• N-E and parts of Gujarat have a very high%age of their forests as unclassed forests managed by local communities.

Indian State of Forests Report

It is released Biennially by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change – Forest Survey of India. It provides information on forest cover, tree cover, mangrove cover, growing stock, carbon stock in India’s forests, forest fire monitoring, forest cover in tiger reserve areas, above-ground estimates of biomass using SAR data & climate change hotspots in Indian forests.

Forest cover In India:

‘Forest Report’ does not differentiate between natural forests & plantations, failing to deliver actual information.

• Forest area: the area notified and recorded as forest land irrespective of the existence of trees. It is based on the records of the State Revenue Department;
• Actual forest cover: the area occupied by forests with canopy. It is based on aerial photographs and satellite imagery. Since 2001, the share of dense forests has been in decline, whereas the share of open forests is on the rise.

• Deemed forest: those forests that are not covered either by the Forest Department or Revenue Department, classified on the Supreme Court order. They constitute only about 1% of the country’s forest. They are already a legal category of forest in some states mentioned in the Odisha State Forest Act, and MP State Forest Act. However, their status in several states is unclear.

Both Forest Area and Forest cover fail to bring the true picture of the forests. Based on the%age of the actual forest cover, the states have been grouped into four regions:

The Region	Percentage Cover
High concentration of forests	>40%
2. Medium concentration of forests	20-40%
3. Low concentration of forests	10-20%
4. Very low concentration of forests	<10%

India State of Forest Report: 

India State of Forest report is released by the Ministry of Environment Forest and Climate Change (M/o EFCC) biennially. It calculates India’s Forest cover: Net positive balance: 24.4% of India’s land area.

Forests are classified into the following categories in terms of forest cover:

• Very Dense Forests (VDF) are forests with tree canopy density of 70% and above.
• Moderately Dense forests are forests with tree canopy density between 40% and 70%.
• Open forests are forests with tree canopy densities between 10% and 40%. More than 300,000 sq. km. of area.
• Scrubs are forests with tree canopy density of less than 10%.

METHODOLOGY

• It generally uses data from Indian Remote Sensing satellite data (Resourcesat-II) to monitor forest cover and forest cover changes at the District, State and National levels.
• This information provides inputs for various global level inventories, reports such as GHG Inventory, Growing Stock, Carbon Stock, Forest Reference Level (FRL) and international reporting to UNFCCC targets under CBD Global Forest Resource Assessment (GFRA) for planning and scientific management of forests.
• The focus is not just to conserve the forests quantitatively but to enrich them qualitatively by the government.

2021 Forest Report 

‘India State of Forest Report 2021’ prepared by the Forest Survey of India (FSI) which has been mandated to assess the forest and tree resources of the country. It notes that the total forest cover in India is about 21.71%

The total forest and tree cover of the country is 80.9 million hectares which is 24.62% of the geographical area of the country. [Tree cover includes the scrubs and Mangroves too]

An increase in forest Cover: As compared to the assessment of 2019, there is an increase of 2,261 sq km in the total forest and tree cover of the country. Out of this, the increase in the forest cover has been observed as 1,540 sq. km and that in tree cover is 721 sq. km.

• Slowing growth: India’s forest cover growth has slowed to an eight-year low in 2021, with just 0.22% increase over 2019, down from 0.85% in 2013 and 0.94% in 2017, the highest in the last decade.
• Category-wise Increase in forest cover has been observed in open forests followed by very dense forests. 
• The top three states showing an increase in forest cover are Andhra Pradesh (647 sq km) followed by Telangana (632 sq km) and Odisha (537 sq km).
• Area-wise MP has the largest forest cover in the country followed by Arunachal Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha and Maharashtra. 
• Percentage-wise the top five States are Mizoram (84.53%), Arunachal Pradesh (79.33%), Meghalaya (76.00%), Manipur (74.34%) and Nagaland (73.90%).
• Amongst UT: Lakshadweep has 90% forest cover and A&N Islands (81.75%)
• 17 states/UTs have above 33% of the geographical area under forest cover. 
  • Out of these states and UTs, five states/UTs namely Lakshadweep, Mizoram, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Arunachal Pradesh and Meghalaya have more than 75% forest cover.
  • While 12 states/UTs namely Manipur, Nagaland, Tripura, Goa, Kerala, Sikkim, Uttarakhand, Chhattisgarh, Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu, Assam, Odisha, have forest cover between 33% to 75%.

Mangrove Cover

The total mangrove cover in the country is 4,992 sq km. An increase of 17 sq Km in mangrove cover has been observed as compared to the previous assessment of 2019. The top three states showing mangrove cover increase are Odisha (8 sq km) followed by Maharashtra (4 sq km) and Karnataka (3 sq km).

Carbon Sink

The total carbon stock in the country’s forest is estimated to be 7,204 million tonnes and there is an increase of 79.4 million tonnes in the carbon stock of the country as compared to the last assessment of 2019. The annual increase in the carbon stock is 39.7 million tonnes.

Forest Policy History: 

The forest policy of Colonial India was based on maximising products & revenues for the state through the imperial forest department as sole owner, protector & manager of the forest estate. Forests were used for Timber for railway sleepers, agriculture, commercial & scientific forestry & mining. 

Promotion of favoured species, in many parts of India, is ironically termed “enrichment plantation”, in which a single commercially valuable species is extensively planted and others eliminated. For example, 

• Teak monoculture damaged natural forest in South India; 
• Chir Pine plantations replaced Himalayan Oak & Rhododendron forests.

Forest Policy Independence:

17. Prevention of cruelty to animals

17A. Forests.

17B. Protection of wild animals and birds.]  Both in concurrent list.

In 1952, India introduced its first Forest policy with the aim of Nationwide forest conservation. However, it continued the statist approach. Forests were still seen as a source of raw material for industry and local communities were simply treated as labourers.

After Independence, due to Agricultural expansion, mining and development projects forests were reduced rapidly. Between 1951 and 1980, 26,200sqkm of land was converted for agriculture as per the Forest Survey of India. 

• Substantial parts of tribal belts, especially in North East and Central India – are deforested or degraded by shifting cultivation (Jhum).
• Development Projects: Since 1951, over 5000sqkm of forest was cleared for river valley projects. For example, The Narmada Sagar Project in MP would inundate 40,000 hectares of forest.  
• Mining: For example, the Buxa Tiger Reserve in West Bengal is seriously threatened by dolomite mining. It has disturbed the natural habitat of several species and blocked the migration route of several others including the great Indian Elephant.

The conservation projects now focus on biodiversity rather than on a few of its components. Intensive search for conservation measures: even insects are beginning to find a place in conservation planning.

• 1976: Article 48A & 51A for the protection of Environment. 
• Notification under the Wildlife Act of 1980 & 1986, several hundred butterflies, moths, beetles & one dragonfly have been added to the list of protected species. 
• Water (Prevention & control of pollution) Act, 1974 – CPCB
• Air (Prevention & control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
• Environment (Protection) Act,1986.
• Hazardous Waste (Management & Handling) Rules 1989.
• In 1991, for the first time, plants were added to the list, starting with six species.

Conservation Strategies and Movements: 

Local Community Approach

In some areas, local communities are struggling to conserve these habitats along with govt. officials. 

1. In Sariska Tiger Reserve, villagers have fought against mining by citing the Wildlife Protection Act.
2. In some areas Inhabitants are themselves protecting habitats: 5 villages in Alwar district. Rajasthan has declared 1200 hectares of forest as Bhairodev Dakav ‘Sonchuri’, declaring its own set of rules & regulations which do not allow hunting, & protect wildlife against any outside encroachment.
3. Chipko: 1973. Uttarakhand, Chimoli. Successfully resisted deforestation in several areas and has shown afforestation with indigenous species can be successful. Led by Chandni Prasad Bhatt and Sunderlal Bahuguna against mindless deforestation in Garhwal Himalayas.
   • Chandi Prasad Bhatt (born 1934) is a Gandhian environmentalist and social activist, who founded Dasholi Gram Swarajya Sangh (DGSS) in Gopeshwar in 1964, which later became a mother organisation to the Chipko Movement.
   • It was an example of Eco-feminism: women were not only its backbone, but also its mainstay, because they were the ones most affected by the rampant deforestation, which led to a lack of firewood and fodder as well as water for drinking. 
   • Appiko(Hug) Movement(1983): In Salkani forest, Sirsi distt. Karnataka 160 men, women & children hugged the trees & forced the woodcutters to leave. They kept vigil for 6 weeks. 
4. Beej Bachao Andolan: 1980s Tehri. drew links between the erosion of agricultural biodiversity and rural livelihoods and sought to preserve the people’s cultural and scientific patrimony, as well as fight back against agrarian policies that favour corporate agribusiness at the expense of small farmers.
5. Navdanya: 1980s, the women-centred movement for Earth Democracy based on the philosophy of ‘Vasudhaiv Kutumbakam’ (The Earth as one Family) for conserving biodiversity, conserving knowledge of the seed and its utilization, conserving culture, conserving sustainability.
   • shown an adequate level of diversified crop production without the use of Chemical fertilizers.
   • Founded by Dr. Vandana Shiva.
6. Silent Valley Protest: 1980s against Morarji Desai govt. against a dam on the Kunthipuzha River submerging the entire biosphere reserve.
7. Some societies revere a particular tree which they have preserved from time immemorial.
   • Mundas & Santhal of Chhota Nagpur worships mahua & Kadamba trees.
   • Tribals of Odisha & Bihar worship tamarind and mango trees during weddings
   • To many Peepal & Banyan are sacred.
8. Sometimes even Animals: in Bishnoi villages in Rajasthan: Heards of blackbuck, chinkara, nilgai & peacocks can be seen as integral parts of the community.

“The tree is a peculiar organism of unlimited kindness and benevolence and makes no demand for its sustenance, and extends generously the products of its life activity. It affords protection to all beings, offering shade even to the axemen who destroy it”.  Gautama Buddha (487 B.C.)

Forest Policy of 1988

Government emphasised sustainable forest management in order to conserve and expand forest reserve on the one hand, and to meet the needs of local people on the other. It aimed at: 

1. Bringing 33% of the geographical areas under forest cover.
2. Maintaining environmental stability and to restore forests where ecological balance was disturbed; 
3. Conserving the natural heritage of the country, its biological diversity and genetic pool; 
4. Checks soil erosion, extension of the desert lands and reduction of floods and droughts;
5. Increasing the forest cover through social forestry and afforestation on degraded land; 
6. Increasing the productivity of forests to make timber, fuel, fodder and food available to rural population dependant on forests, and encourage the substitution of wood; 
7. Creating of a massive people’s movement involving women to encourage planting of trees, stop felling of trees and thus, reduce pressure on the existing forest.

Did you know?

Out of a total of 593 districts, 187 (2001) have been identified as Tribal Districts – account for about 59.8% of the total forest cover whereas the geographical area of 187 tribal districts forms only 33.6% of the total geographical area of the country.

Social Forests and Community Forests

Based on the forest conservation policy the following steps were initiated:

• Social forestry (or community forestry): management and protection of forests and afforestation on barren lands with the purpose of helping in the environmental, social and rural development. 

National Commission on Agriculture (1976) has classified social forestry into 3 categories:

• Urban forestry pertains to the raising and management of trees on public and privately-owned lands in and around urban centres such as green belts, parks, roadside avenues, industrial and commercial green belts, etc.
• Rural forestry lays emphasis on promotion of agro-forestry and community-forestry. 
  1. Agro-forestry is the raising of trees and agriculture crops on the same land inclusive of the waste patches. It combines forestry with agriculture, thus, altering the simultaneous production of food, fodder, fuel, timber and fruit. (Agriculture in forests)
  2. Community Forestry Program aims at providing benefits to the community as a whole.  It provides a means to the landless people. They can associate themselves in tree-raising and thus, get those benefits which otherwise are restricted for landowners. It involves the raising of trees on public or community land such as the village pasture and temple land, roadside, canal bank, strips along railway lines, and schools etc. 

• Farm Forestry: Term applied to the process under which farmers grow trees for commercial and non-commercial purposes on their farm lands. Forest departments of various states distribute seedlings of trees free of cost to small & Medium farmers.

• Several lands such as the margins of agricultural fields, grasslands and pastures, land around homes and cow sheds may be used for raising trees under non-commercial farm forestry.
• Plus point: It prioritized environmental stability over profit maximization.

India Joint forest management (JFM) programme 

JFM approach was first followed in Odisha in 1988, and then was adopted by the Government of India in 1990s. It involved local communities in the management and restoration of degraded forests (a bottom up approach).

This approach is based on the formation of local (village) institutions that undertake protection activities mostly on degraded forest land managed by forest dept. In return villages are entitled to intermediary benefits like share in timber produced in non-timber forest, harvested by ‘successful protection’.

However, it wasn’t as successful at the national level as was in Odisha, due to its haphazard implementation:

• Foresters created thousands of village Forest committees but severely limited their autonomy. 
• Top down approach: “People’s participation” by executive order was too weak & lopsided”. 
• Activities stopped as soon as funds dried out.

FRA: Forest Rights Act, 2006: Next Page.

• Devolution of power to Gram Sabha: To create public infrastructure.
• Rights of forest dwellers over forest produce; and hold habitation or cultivation for livelihood.

Compensatory Afforestation Fund (CAF) Act 2016: 

It specifies the activities that allowed or restricted in a forest area. It has following provisions:

• Compensatory Afforestation-Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMFPA): an independent authority to ensure expeditious & transparent utilization of amounts realized in lieu of forest land diverted for non-forest purpose which would mitigate the impact of diversion of such forest land. Two categories of funds are created under CAMFPA, each getting 10% of the infra Fund.
  • National Compensatory Afforestation Fund (NCAMFPA): under Public Account of India.
  • State Compensatory Afforestation Fund (SCAMFPA): under the Public Account of each state. 

• The payments into the funds include compensatory afforestation, NPV, and any project-specific payments.

• CAMPA has so far disbursed ₹48,606 crore to 32 States (2022). These CAMPA funds are part of long-pending dues of the Compensatory Afforestation Fund (CAF), a ₹54,000-crore tranche collected for nearly a decade as environmental compensation from industry, which has razed forest land for its business plans.
  • Chhattisgarh and Odisha have had the maximum amount transferred to them, or close to ₹5,700 crore each followed by Jharkhand and Maharashtra at around ₹3,000 crore.

• Compensatory Afforestation Fund (CAF) Rules, 2018: To facilitate utilisation of CAMPA fund. 
  • It comes nearly 1.5yrs after CAF Act, 2016. Draft rules:
  • Utilization of funds: 
    • 80% of the “Net Present Value (NPV)” can be used for forest & wildlife management: 
      • Assisted natural regeneration & artificial regeneration (by plantations), 
      • Protection of plantations and forests, 
      • Pest and disease control in forest, 
      • Forest fire prevention and others. 
    • 20% of the NPV, “for strengthening forest & wildlife related infrastructure: 
      • Capacity building of the personnel of state forest departments and other associated agencies and organisations involved in utilisation of these monies”.
  • Activities allowed: List of activities that can be undertaken from the fund: 

• Establishment, upgradation and maintenance of modern nurseries, 
• Purchase and maintenance of communication devices, 
• Construction, up-gradation and maintenance of inspection paths. 

• These activities “shall be taken up in consultation with the Gram Sabha or Van Sanrakshan Samiti (VSS) or Village Forest Committee as the case may be” in consonance with FRA 2006.

• Activities not allowed: The fund will not be used for activities like: 
  • payment of salary, and medical expenses to regular employees of the state forest department, travelling allowances, payment for legal services, purchase of cars, 
  • construction of residential and official buildings for officers above forest range officers.
• Criticisms: Violation the Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006: 
  • FRA Act mandates that Gram Sabha has both the right and the power to protect, manage and conserve their forests.

 National Forest Policy (NFP) 2018: 

Aim: to Address the Climate Change Issues and Sustainable Management of Forest Resources for flow of Ecosystem Services. It would help in Fulfilling Goals related to Climate Change.  

Driving force: 

• India’s NDC targets given to UNFCCC. 
• Govt. had accumulated ₹50,000Cr of NPV monies (called CAMPA), which provides the means to achieving this carbon target.
• India aims to increase Forest cover to 33% which currently stands at 21%.

Problem: It says that there is a decline in forest productivity; & identifies “ production forestry” & Plantations as the “new thrust area“. 

Salient features: 

1. Reducing Threats to Forests & Preventing Forest Fires: By: 
   • Mapping & Strengthening early warning system, using Remote sensing for detection, 
   • Developing methods to control fire.
   • Creating awareness.
2. Enhancing Quality & Productivity of Natural forest: Dense forests will be a top priority. Rehabilitation of forests by promoting natural regeneration, by taking strict protection measures and by planting locally suitable indigenous species. 

• Increasing Productivity of Forest Plantations: To strengthen participatory approach.
  • Intensive scientific management of forest plantations of commercially important species like teak, sal, sisham, poplar, gmelina, eucalyptus, casuarina, bamboo etc. The degraded & underutilized land available with the forest corporations will be managed to produce quality timber with scientific interventions.
  • PPP Model:  Surplus Degraded & Under-utilised land will be managed to produce Timber Under PPP Model for Afforestation and Reforestation measures. Forest development corporations – will now enter into PPPs to bring corporate investments into forest lands.
• Management of Non-timber forest produce (NTFP): [For example, medicinal and aromatic plants, oil seeds, resins, wild edibles, fibre, bamboo, grass etc.] Such produce should be managed sustainably ensuring increased employment and income opportunities for the local communities.

1. Forest management shall be according to approved working plan: as per guidelines issued by MoEFCC: It shall also cover private forests/plantations/trees lots.
2. Soil & Water Conservation Measures: 
   • Stabilising Sensitive Catchment Areas by Soil and Water Conservation Measures.
   • Planting Suitable Trees and Grasses that help in Conservation and Water Recycling.
3. Promotion of trees outside forests:

• Promoting Agro-Foresrty & Farm Forestry Industries: that would generate Employment.
• Urban Cover: To deal with Urban Problems such as Pollution.

1. National Community Forest Management (CFM) Mission:  To strengthen Participatory management. National, state & local programs would converge at the villages. Efforts would be made to ensure synergy between Gram Sabha & JFMC – to ensure community participation.

Institutional framework: or ensuring inter-sectoral convergence, simplification of procedures, conflict resolution and periodic review:

• National Board of Forestry: headed by the central minister in-charge of forests and 
• State Boards of Forestry headed by state minister in-charge of forests.

Criticism: Poorly written text with its platitudes & confusion.

• Centrally managed forests: Centralization (opposite of 1988 Policy): It looks like Govt.’s intent to fall back on State-managed forestry to meet new “national” goals;
• Not sure how the participation of forest dwellers shall be ensured that are guaranteed under FRA.
• Production forestry can lead to Biodiversity destruction: Examples
  • replacing natural oak forests with pine monocultures in the Himalayas, 
  • natural Sal forests with teak plantations in central India, and
  • wet evergreen forests with eucalyptus & acacia in the W. Ghats.

Schemes Related to Urban Forestry:

Miyawaki-style afforestation technique: The technique was pioneered by Japanese botanist Akira Miyawaki.  Kerala government will adopt Miyawaki method of afforestation in schools, government buildings etc.  It involves raising indigenous and native trees in dense plantations mimicking forest setting The approach is supposed to ensure that plant growth is 10 times faster and the resulting plantation is 30 times denser than usual.  MOBILE APP M-HARIYALI:  (MH&UA) launched an app to encourage public engagement in planting trees and Green drives. provides automatic geo- tagging of plants. It will hence enable the nodal officers to periodically monitor the plantation.  People can now upload information/photos of any plantation done by them, which is linked to app and will be displayed on a website

Important Plants

• Himalayan Yew: medicinal plant found in various parts of HP & AP. The chemical compound ‘Taxol’ is extracted from the bark, needles, twigs & roots of this tree, and has been successfully used to treat cancers-the drug is now the biggest selling anti-cancer drug in the world. It is under threat due to over-exploitation. Thousands of yew trees have died in various parts in the last decades.

Natural Vegetation

Natural vegetation refers to a plant community that has been left undisturbed over a long time, to allow its species to adjust themselves to climate and soil conditions as fully as possible.

Types of Forests: 

A. Tropical Evergreen and Semi Evergreen Forests: 

These are found in the western slope of the Western Ghats, the hills of the northeastern region and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. 

• Annual precipitation of over 200 cm and mean annual temperature above 22oC.
• They are well stratified, with layers closer to the ground and are covered with shrubs and creepers, with short structured trees followed by a tall variety of trees.
• Canopy: trees reach great heights up to 60 m or above. 
• There is no definite time for trees to shed their leaves, flowering and fruition. As such these forests appear green all year round. 
• Species found in these forests include rosewood, mahogany, aini, ebony, etc.
• Semi-evergreen forests are found in the less rainy parts of these regions. Such forests have a mixture of evergreen and moist deciduous trees. The undergrowing climbers provide an evergreen character to these forests. The main species are white cedar, hollock and kail.
  • Oak forests in Garhwal & Kumaon were replaced by Pine(Chirs) – needed for the railway.
  • Plantations of tea, rubber & Coffee were introduced.

B. Tropical Deciduous Forests: 

These are also known as the Monsoon forests.

• Region: Widespread;
• Climate: rainfall between 70-200cm

Based on the availability of water Tropical Deciduous are classified as: 

• Moist Deciduous Forest: 
  • Rainfall: between 100-200cm. 
  • Region: N-E states along the foothills of Himalaya, eastern slopes of W. Ghats & Odisha.
  • Vegetation: Teak, Sal, Shisham, Hurra, Mahua, Amla, Kusum & Sandalwood etc.
• Dry Deciduous Forest:
  • Rainfall: 70-100cm; On wetter margins, it has transitioned into Moist Deciduous & on drier margins into thorn.
  • Region: Rainier areas of the peninsula (Chhotanagpur plateau) & plains of UP-Bihar.
  • Vegetation: These have a parkland landscape with open stretches in which teak & other trees interspersed with patches of grass. They shed leaves in the dry season – the forest appears like vast grassland with naked trees all around:
    • Tendu, Palas, Amalta, Bel, Khair, Axlewood etc.

C. Tropical Thorn Forests: 

1. 1. • Climate: less than 50cm, Variety of grasses & shrubs.
      • Region: semi-arid areas of southwest Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, MP and UP.
      • Vegetation: plants remain leafless for most part of the year and give an expression of scrub vegetation. 
        • Important species: babool, ber, and wild date palm, khair, neem, khejri, palas, etc. 
        • Tussocky grass grows up to a height of 2 m as the undergrowth.
      • In Western & southern Rajasthan: vegetation cover is scanty: Low rainfall & overgrazing.

D. Montane Vegetation

1. • Climate: Decrease in temp with increased altitude.
   • Classified as: Northern Mountain forests & Southern Mountain forests.

• • Northern Mountain forests: Himalayan ranges show a succession of vegetation: from the tropical to the tundra(low grassland due to permafrost), which changes with the altitude.:
    • Deciduous forests are found in the foothills of the Himalayas. 
    • Wet temperate type of forests: between an altitude of 1,000-2,000 m.
      • In higher hill ranges of NE India, hilly areas of West Bengal and Uttaranchal, evergreen broad-leaf trees such as oak and chestnut are predominant. 
      • Between 1,500-1,750m, pine forests are also well-developed in this zone
        • Chir Pine is a very useful commercial tree. 
        • Deodar, a highly valued endemic species grows mainly in the western part of the Himalayan range – durable wood mainly used in construction activity. 
      • Chinar and the walnut, sustain the famous Kashmir handicrafts. 
    • Sub-Alpine: Blue pine and spruce appear at altitudes of 2,225-3,048 m. At many places in this zone, temperate grasslands are also found.
      • In the higher reaches, there is a transition to Alpine forests and pastures(Alpine Tundra?). 
    • Alpine: Silver firs, junipers, pines, birch rhododendrons, etc. occur between 3,000-4,000 m. These pastures are used extensively for transhumance by tribes like the Gujjars, the Bakarwals, the Bhotiyas and the Gaddis. The southern slopes of the Himalayas carry a thicker vegetation cover because of relatively higher precipitation than the drier north-facing slopes. 
    • Tundra Vegetation: At higher altitudes, mosses and lichens form part of the tundra vegetation.
  • Southern Mountain Forests: 3 distinct parts of Peninsular India: W. Ghats, Vindhyas & Nilgiris.
    • Climate: Closer to tropics: 1500m above sea level.
• Vegetation: 
• In Higher regions: Temperate forests are called Sholas in Nilgiris, Anaimalai & Palani hills.

• Sholas are stunted temperate forests, interspersed by grasslands. 
• Some of the trees of this forest of economic significance include magnolia, laurel, cinchona and wattle.
• Such forests are also found in the Satpura and the Maikal ranges. They are found in lower regions, especially in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.

E. Littoral & Swamp Forests

A rich variety of wetlands: 70% of this comprises – areas under paddy. The total area of the wetland is 3.9 million hectares.

Two sites are protected as water-fowl habitats under the Convention of Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Convention) — Chilika Lake (Orissa) and Keoladeo National Park (Bharatpur) 

Ramsar convention: Under the UN; the “Convention on Wetlands” was Signed in Ramsar(Iran) in 1971; for the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands. Today 25 sites in India are of International Importance.

Classification of Wetlands

The country’s wetlands have been grouped into eight categories:

• Reservoirs of the Deccan Plateau in the south together with the lagoons and other wetlands of the southern west coast;

• Vast saline expanses of Rajasthan, Gujarat and the Gulf of Kachchh;

• Freshwater lakes and reservoirs from Gujarat eastwards through Rajasthan (Keoladeo National Park – formerly Bharatpur Wildlife Sanctuary – also have mammals: Chital & few Sambar) and Madhya Pradesh;

• The delta wetlands and lagoons of India’s east coast (For example, Chilika Lake); 

• the freshwater marshes of the Gangetic Plain;

• the floodplains of the Brahmaputra; the marshes and swamps in the hills of northeast India and the Himalayan foothills; 

• the lakes and rivers of the montane region of Kashmir and Ladakh;

• The mangrove forest and other wetlands of the island arcs of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Mangroves grow along the coasts in the salt marshes, tidal creeks, mud flats and estuaries 

They consist of a number of salt-tolerant species of plants. Crisscrossed by creeks of stagnant water and tidal flows, these forests give shelter to a wide variety of birds.

• Mangrove forests spread over 6,740 sq. = 7%of the world’s mangrove forests. They are highly developed in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands & Sunderbans of West Bengal. Other areas of significance are the Mahanadi, the Godavari and the Krishna deltas.

 WILDLIFE

Estimated that about 4-5% of all known plant and animal species on the earth are found in India – this remarkable diversity of life forms is due to the great diversity of the ecosystem. 

Some of the important reasons for the decline of wildlife are:

1. Industrial and technological advancement – Rapid increase in the exploitation of forest resources.
2. Land diversion: for agriculture, human settlement, roads, mining, reservoirs, etc.
3. Pressure on forests due to lopping for fodder and fuel-wood and removal of small timber by the local people.
4. Grazing by domestic cattle.
5. Hunting was taken up as a sport by the elite – hundreds of wild animals were killed in a single hunt. Now commercial poaching is rampant.
6. Incidence of forest fire. 

Why are forests of India an essential topic for UPSC aspirants?

Forests in India are crucial for understanding biodiversity, climate regulation, tribal livelihoods, and ecological balance. UPSC often includes questions related to forest resources, conservation policies, and environmental governance.

How are forests in India classified, and why is this important for UPSC exams?

Indian forests are classified into Tropical Evergreen, Tropical Deciduous, Montane, Mangrove, and Thorn Forests. Knowledge of these classifications helps aspirants answer geography and environment-related questions effectively in UPSC.

What is the significance of mangrove forests in India from a UPSC perspective?

Mangrove forests, such as the Sundarbans, protect coastlines from cyclones, floods, and erosion, and serve as nurseries for marine biodiversity. Their ecological and economic significance makes them a recurring topic in UPSC examinations.

Which major government policies and initiatives related to forests should UPSC aspirants study?

Important initiatives include the National Forest Policy, Forest Conservation Act (1980), CAMPA funds, and initiatives like Green India Mission. Familiarity with these helps aspirants address policy-based questions in UPSC exams.

How do forests contribute to India’s economy and tribal welfare, often asked in UPSC exams?

Forests significantly contribute to India’s economy through timber, non-timber forest products, ecotourism, and employment. Additionally, tribal communities depend on forests for livelihoods, making this a key socio-economic topic in the UPSC syllabus.